The Social Dimension of Sustainable Development and the Mining Industry

The Social Issue

"Sustainable development" throughout this paper is defined as in the Brundtland report, namely, "development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs." This is also the definition used in the Department of Natural Resources Act.

The question then becomes one of ensuring that a development is sustainable, or that the development generated by the extraction of a mineral resource continues through time even though the mineral itself does not. This is a complex, long-term issue in which the social or human dimension of sustainable development becomes crucial. It is an issue that requires dealing with the fact that the mineral wealth of an area will come to an end, but that the development generated by that mineral wealth can and should continue so that future generations can continue to meet their needs.

Although sustainable development requires the integration of the economic, environmental and social dimensions of the development itself, this paper concentrates on the social dimension only. It should nonetheless be noted that the social dimension cannot be divorced from either the economic or the environmental dimensions. Many of the social elements of sustainable development can be cast in the light of socio-economic considerations as links between the economic and social dimensions. Furthermore, environmental considerations are present in discussions of health and safety issues, in issues dealing with settlements, or in the examination of the impact of a development on subsistence lifestyles.

When dealing with the social dimension of sustainable development it is important to remember that the main theme is people and how a development can contribute to their lives and their opportunities to make the present and the future better. The impacts of development activities can occur at several social scales, including individuals, families, communities, First Nations, cultures, and society as a whole. It must also be noted that the social dimension is subjective, qualitative, difficult to measure, and perceived differently by the various players and stakeholders.

The following discussion concentrates on the social benefits and impacts of the mining industry. Although it is understood that there is a strong component of the social dimension that resides within the purview of governments, the follow ing discussion is limited to the effects of mining in an attempt to identify some of the benefits and impacts of mining developments on the social fabric and the possible responses of the industry.

The social impacts and opportunities created by a mineral development can be categorized in a variety of ways. In order to facilitate the discussion, three categories have been identified as a starting point. These categories were selected because, although each has a social focus, they serve to integrate the three dimensions of sustainable development. Environmental and economic issues are covered within these categories but, in each case, the social issues, namely individuals, families and communities, are the starting point for the discussion. Each of these categories is further divided into sub-categories that are not meant to be mutually exclusive, but rather to be reflective of the types of concerns and issues that are related to the social dimension of sustainable development.

3.1 Healthy People, Healthy Environment

3.1.1 Health and Safety

Ensuring healthy and safe working conditions at the mine site is often the first social impact identified by residents and workers. Miners and community leaders want assurances that work on the site will be safe for people and non-detrimental to the environment. They also want to see how accidents, which can put the health and safety of workers at risk or can be the cause of environmental damage, will be treated. Workers, communities and governments want to see the emergency measures that a mining company has prepared to deal with accidents and the commitment it has to these measures. The health and safety of all individuals at a site, from workers to visitors, are basic social requirements of any development.

Health and safety at the mine site are ensured through management plans. Contingencies for responding to accidents are usually part of the proposed plan for the mine. Response to accidents can go beyond the mine site to the education of members of neighbouring settlements in emergency procedures. Although the development of emergency response measures is necessary to assuage fears, working with communities to develop emergency response capabilities external to the actual site within the region can do much to involve people more closely with the mine.

It should be noted that ensuring health and safety at the mine site makes good business sense, since the company can often recoup costs associated with nurturing a safe working environment through lower insurance premiums. Reduced costs, a healthy work force and the good will of neighbouring settlements can all result from ensuring a safe working environment.

3.1.2 Health Care

Health care for the individuals in communities dependent on a mineral development is also essential. Healthy workers are necessary for the good functioning of the mine, but healthy families are also necessary for the functioning of a community. In Canada, health care is primarily a provincial or territorial responsibility, but the development of a mine in a remote area can quickly stretch the capacity of a provincial or territorial health care system. The influx of outsiders and the presence of a development can bring about better health care in an area, and yet, some health care issues, such as increased drug and alcohol abuse, can arise due to the presence of the mine.

Health care is not limited to the provision of health facilities and professionals on a site. It can include the provision of services to the individuals and families in a community. Health care includes access to services, access to health education and preventive measures, and access to mental health services. In specific communities, preventive measures may be aimed at potential or existing problems, such as alcohol and drug addiction, or at specific groups within the community such as the elderly, women or youth.

The health of individuals and families is essential to the sustained development of a community and a development. Although some elements, such as access to medical services, may be general to all communities, communities may also be interested in ensuring specific services, geared to their own situation or problems, and may be looking to industry to offer assistance. Such assistance may include, but not be restricted to, education on preventive health care, counselling for workers and their families, and the provision of health services at the mine site open to all members of a community.

In this paper, the discussion of the social dimension of mining relates mainly to the Canadian context. It should be noted that some international dimensions, such as human rights issues, are not being discussed in the paper. Another such issue on the international scene is HIV/AIDS and mining. As the experiences of several companies in Southern Africa demonstrate, it is necessary for mining companies to be involved in dealing with the HIV/AIDS crisis (Elias and Taylor, 2001).

3.1.3 Aboriginal Peoples

For many Aboriginal groups, the respect and preservation of traditional cultures and values are necessary requirements of development. Native cultures differ, and identifying the values and elements of a given Aboriginal culture should be the first task of a mining concern working on or close to Aboriginal lands. A mine can lead to the introduction of new lifestyles and consumption patterns that can disrupt community life and lead to a breakdown of traditional lifestyles. Aboriginal peoples perceive many risks in the development of mineral and metal resources including loss of traditional resources, disruption of social organizations, and spiritual uncertainty (Downing et al, 2002). Aboriginal peoples will want to protect their communities and their culture from such a breakdown and ensure that their values and way of life can be preserved for present and future generations.

While ensuring values and way of life, some Aboriginal communities may not have the ability to make the transition from a traditional economy to a cash economy. Many mining companies are recognizing these difficulties and have introduced programs to help Aboriginal peoples retain their traditional values and ways of life. Such programs include fly-in mining, which lowers the impact on neighbouring communities; the two or three-week working session followed by the same amount of time off, which gives Aboriginal peoples a chance to continue a traditional lifestyle during the weeks off; the provision of time off during traditional hunting seasons; and training programs to develop skills that can be transferred to other jobs once the mine is closed.

Aboriginal peoples also often fear that access to traditional hunting grounds will be denied because of the mine or opened up to strangers through road access. The presence of a development and of outsiders is seen as a source of environmental damage that can result in a reduction of wildlife. Furthermore, because traditional activities remain an important component of Aboriginal cultures, there is a fear that workers will not have the time to pursue traditional activities or that youth will not learn traditional values.

Working with Aboriginal peoples begins with consultation, which is not an easy task. Consultation entails establishing a relationship of mutual trust; this takes considerable time and understanding. Traditional and cultural values are not easily shared between people with very different social backgrounds, yet this sharing is essential to developing an understanding of ways of life, issues of concerns, and communication opportunities. Processes that involve a third party may be required to bridge the gaps between Aboriginal peoples and industry and to establish a communications process that respects the Aboriginal peoples and makes it possible for them to engage.

The participation of Aboriginal peoples in environmental and social impact assessments is necessary to identify their concerns and to give them a voice and a place in the decision-making context. Unfortunately, Aboriginal peoples often lack the resources to access the information and the expertise required to participate fully. Assisting Aboriginal peoples in developing the needed resources to effectively participate in environmental assessments and later in decision-making is a first step in recognizing their needs, their concerns, and the value of their contribution.

Respecting Aboriginal cultures and values requires that mining companies find effective ways of ensuring continued access to traditional territories and to wildlife, and of integrating the environmental and traditional values of the local population into mining activities. Providing facilities for traditional activities at mine sites and inviting elders to spend time counselling and visiting at mine sites are examples of specific activities to integrate mining with traditional activities.

Ensuring that an adequate proportion of the work force is Aboriginal is a necessity in Aboriginal regions. This may require the mining company to set up training and apprenticeship programs specifically for Aboriginal workers. Purchasing goods from local and Aboriginal businesses and helping to develop Aboriginal businesses are activities that can result in long-term enhancement of the local economy. Mining companies can develop specific policies that clearly state the minimum acceptable percentage of Aboriginal employment and the desired percentage of Aboriginal involvement in mine procurement.

3.1.4 Women

The women of a community form a significant group with specific concerns. In many cases, women see impacts as related to one another. For instance, women see alcohol and drug abuse as leading to strained relationships, jealousy, violence, family breakdown, lost job and training opportunities, and financial stress. Many women believe that counselling and health care assistance linked to substance abuse and other family disruptions should be made available for all the members of families affected by a mineral development. Furthermore, counselling and health care that is accessible to the women and their families means that they need to be dispensed in remote locations and communities, not just at the mine site.

Some mining companies have women working in all aspects of the operation, including underground. These jobs give women increased economic power and can change relationship dynamics in a positive way.

Women often feel left out of the consultation processes that mining companies conduct in communities. Such consultation processes are often geared to reach all the leaders of the community to the exclusion of some groups such as women and youth. Women are often less likely to attend a public forum, especially if no child care is provided, and will often not speak out to express their concerns in public. Women also feel that demanding anything of a company may jeopardize the employment opportunities of their spouses and sons (Musvoto, 2001). Consultations to identify the specific impacts on a community’s female population must be designed to reach the women in an atmosphere that permits communication.

An improved standard of living and an increase in financial security and material goods are seen by women as leading to a better family life and increased opportunities for their children. Some women feel that they need assistance to properly use these opportunities. Financial management education is seen by some as a necessity to enhance the positive fam ilial socio-economic opportunities derived from a mineral development. Furthermore, women entrepreneurs, because of poor access to education and skills development, usually struggle with access to finance and with understanding the financial world (Ranchod, 2001).

Increasing women’s participation in the economy, their access to educational opportunities, and their involvement in decision-making can have a direct impact on reducing poverty. It should be recalled that the United Nations, at the 4th World Conference on Women in Beijing in 1995, said that 70% of the world’s poor are women (Ranchod, 2001).

3.1.5 Religious and Cultural Values

Burial grounds, ceremonial sites, and religious structures are examples of sites that hold special values for individuals and groups of people who are often, but not exclusively, Aboriginal peoples. Protection of these sites is a prerequisite of demonstrating respect for their beliefs and values.

Mining companies need to first identify any sites or areas that hold special religious or cultural importance. Archeological studies and discussions with local people can lead to this identification. Dealing respectfully with religious and cultural sites requires consultations with local people and flexibility in adapting plans to local situations. While the destruction of sites with religious and cultural values can lead to resentment and opposition, a respectful attitude can help gain the trust of local populations.

3.2 Innovation and Learning

3.2.1 Education

A mining development can have an impact on education. In remote communities, the level of education of individuals is often not high enough to fill all the possible jobs within the mine. The goal of replacing outsiders with local people means that individual workers have to be trained and encouraged to advance. Training programs and apprenticeship programs can help increase the education level of employees, but these should also be accompanied by opportunities for advancement and the conditions that make advancement possible. Workers must have incentive to undertake training and to believe that it will result in advancement.

Educating the youth of a community to work in the mine, in related enterprises or in the community can have a positive social impact, but building and maintaining schools is not enough. Mining companies often go beyond such programs and extend educational assistance to youth through scholarships. Again, what is necessary is the creation of conditions that make it possible for youth to believe that education will be helpful and lead to a better life. Lack of motivation to attend school or training programs, or to hold on to a job, is a problem that has been identified in many remote communities, including Aboriginal communities.

Education at a distance through the use of the Internet offers many possibilities for both adults and youths. In remote settlements, the mine site may have the best connections to the outside world through the Internet. Offering the use of facilities for access to education at a distance may be a simple yet effective way for a mining company to increase the educational possibilities and potential for the people of neighbouring settlements.

Furthermore, higher incomes in the community from the mine can result in better education for individuals. An initial problem with low levels of educational attainment can be changed into a positive impact through specific programs. A rise in educational levels can have a long-term impact that leads to sustainability for individuals, families and communities.

Through training and education, the number of local people employed at the mine site can rise, but so can the number of local enterprises. This can assist in diversifying the economy and retaining youth in the area.

3.2.2 Employment

Many new mining developments occur in remote and isolated areas. As such, these developments are important for their positive socio-economic impacts as they generate employment for individuals and taxes for the different levels of jurisdiction, making economic development possible. Through the generation of income, they can lead to a rise in the standard of living of individuals, families and even communities. They can also be the source of security of livelihood for individuals and families. They also enable the development of skills that can be used elsewhere when a mine closes.

3.2.3 Economic Diversification

The provision of new goods and services can help to diversify the economy and create new job opportunities and additional impetus for individuals to continue their education. Economic diversification of a community or region can be helpful in making it possible for a mining development to be sustainable, since a strong diversified economy can survive the closure of a mine.

Mining companies can successfully help to diversify the economy of a region by assisting in the development of local and, where warranted, Aboriginal enterprises. Information on the types of businesses required to support the mine and business training can be extremely helpful to local entrepreneurs. Partnerships with existing contracting firms to help establish new local firm s create opportunities for even more diversification. Mining companies can also support community economic development through the development of cooperatives or other economic venues.

As incomes rise and more money is available to individuals and families, the demand for a variety of goods and services will expand. New services and goods providers may be needed locally. Mining companies, through information distribution and business support, can help local people acquire the skills to deliver new goods and services. As new local services or goods providers become successful, they in turn can serve as examples and this can have a multiplier effect leading to economic community diversification.

3.3 Vigorous and Proud Communities

3.3.1 Community Involvement

Each community is different and must be approached according to its own characteristics. One of the first issues for a mining company is to identify the communities that may be affected by a mineral development. It is important to recognize that impacts can extend over a whole region and will not necessarily be limited to the immediate vicinity of the mine. The social and environmental sustainability of a mineral development should apply to the affected region and to all of the communities within that region.

With an increase in communications and the fact that communities are becoming more proactive, they are asking to be directly involved in decision-making and in dealing with the impacts on their communities. The involvement of stakeholders and communities in mining development is evolving towards their participation in decision-making. For a mining company, this means that all voices should have a chance to be heard and that appropriate methods of participation need to be devised for each community. Such methods may include consultation bodies created within the community or access to decision-making bodies by appointed individuals.

There are several important aspects to ensuring the participation of a community and its members. Understanding the culture and values of the people, reaching out to include all groups within the community, and, helping the community build the capacity to cope with the mineral development and attendant impacts are all necessary. Community capacity building means helping communities develop the tools needed to deal with future changes from the provision of services to planning an economic future once the mine closes; planning must take into account the full mining cycle. Helping communities build their capacity to deal with the social issues of education, health care, economic opportunities, preservation of cultures and values, youth integration and involvement in activities is an essential component of dealing with the social impacts of mineral development.

3.3.2 Outsiders

The influx of outsiders into a community and the ensuing rapid expansion of the community can be a cause for concern for individuals and families. Increases in prostitution, sexually transmitted diseases, alcoholism, drug abuse and violence are seen as the negative side of development. Such impacts are especially worrisome for women, who are concerned about the safety of children and young women and who fear the breakdown of family values. Fly-in operations seem at first glance to have resolved this issue, but it should be remembered that the employees are flown in from a given community that will experience an increase in outsiders and expansion, resulting in an increase in social problems. Goods and services are also acquired in a community that will feel the impact of a development.

Dealing with the problems that can occur from the influx of outsiders to a community can require an increase in health care delivery. Counselling for alcohol and drug abuse, and for victims of violence or sexually transmitted diseases, can help decrease the negative impact of outsiders on individuals and families. Such counselling can be made available not only to mine workers, but also to their families. Crime prevention programs may also be necessary, and the mining industry can assist communities in the development of such programs and the capacity to apply them. Furthermore, some companies have set goals of including high levels of local people within the work force or even of eventually replacing all outsiders with local people.

Although it is difficult to prevent some of the negative influences that occur from the presence of outsiders, some of the impacts can be diminished through fly-in mining and through an increase in the proportion of local workers. With fly-in mining, larger settlements that act as service and transportation centres will see an increase in outsiders, while some of the settlem ents from which workers originate will see very few outsiders. In some cases, they will see a declining population as their residents relocate to larger centres after working for a while with the mine. As the local proportion of mine workers increases, the proportion of outsiders will decrease. Training, education, advancement opportunities and a policy of hiring local people can all serve to decrease the negative influence of outsiders on communities.

Outsiders can also have positive impacts on a community through the provision of new or improved services, such as health services and education. Furthermore, tourists are outsiders who can put money into the economy of a region.

3.3.3 Access

The creation of roads has potential environmental and social consequences. Roads can also have a beneficial effect. Access to a community can make it possible for new goods and services to be brought in or it can be used as an opportunity to develop tourism or to otherwise diversify the economy. Furthermore, roads can provide Aboriginal peoples with easier access to hunting, trapping and fishing areas.

In areas that are difficult to access, roads can become an important instrument of economic diversification. The presence of a road can make it possible for mining exploration to intensify and for marginal orebodies to be brought into production. Furthermore, such roads can result in the development of other economic resources and in lower prices for food and essential goods.

Roads constructed to a mine site also allow general access to a new area. This access can be used by hunters, who can illegally take animals, and by in-migrants, who can settle, legally or illegally, on the territory. Illegal hunting and fishing are of particular concern in areas that are critical habitat for species at risk and in regions that are used by Aboriginal peoples engaged in traditional activities or lifestyles. These are areas where the reduction of wildlife can have serious impacts on the wildlife itself or on the activities and lives of the local people.

Since roads are often essential to a mining development, road access becomes an issue. Access to a road can be open to all or it can be limited, but this should depend on the wishes of residents and local communities and should take into account any safety concerns due to the use of heavy vehicles. If access is limited, gates and security may be required.

3.3.4 Foundations

In some cases, mining companies have created foundations to deliver social programs to individuals and communities. Such foundations have had many successes and have become involved in the support of local schools, scholarships, sporting and cultural events, health care, and many other local activities. They can provide direct access for mine employees and managers to become involved in the activities of an area. When well managed with a dedicated staff, clear goals and objectives, a budget, and the support of the highest levels of management, foundations have been found to deliver many benefits (McMahon, 1998).

3.3.5 Displacement of Populations

Mineral and metal resources are exploited where they are found. Sometimes, gaining access to a resource requires displacing local populations. Displacement can result in the loss of physical and non-physical assets for local populations, including homes, productive land, access to traditional lands, resources, cultural sites, social structures, and income-earning assets. There is a risk that local populations may find 19 themselves jobless, homeless, marginalized, and without access to traditional food sources while having lost social cohesiveness and having to deal with the disruption of educational and cultural activities.

Populations are often resettled by the mining company, in cooperation with local and national governments. The goal of resettlement should be to ensure minimum disruption in the lives, livelihoods and culture of local populations and the individuals and families that comprise them.

There are three possible strategies with different outcomes that have been followed by mining companies in cooperation with governments. The first, which requires the least effort and can result in major disruptions, is simply to displace the populations without concern for the people; this has mainly occurred when the individuals had no legal or recognized rights to the lands in question. The second strategy, relocation, involves compensation or the rebuilding of lost assets, such as housing, at a new location. Although the populations thus acquire infrastructure at the new location, they must still deal with the disruption to the social fabric of communities, the acquisition of new productive land and systems, and cultural disruptions. The third strategy, rehabilitation, entails providing processes, beyond relocation, to ensure that livelihoods and social systems are restored and that affected peoples are better off as a result of the project (Downing, 2002). Although difficult and more costly, the third strategy is, in essence, ensuring that the mining development is sustainable, in the present and the future, for any displaced populations.

It should be noted that resettlement seldom happens anymore in Canada. It is, today, mainly an international issue, but one which has the potential to occur on Canadian soil.

3.3.6 Mine Closure

When a mineral resource becomes exhausted and a mine prepares to close, it is too late to start considering the effects of mine closure. True sustainable development implies that methods to ensure the sustainability of the community and its people have been integrated into the mining activities from the time the project was first proposed and throughout the life of the mine. Sustainability means that, as a mine closes, the community does not become a ghost town or become severely limited with regard to socio-economic opportunities.

One of the dangers of the mining industry directly supporting services within a community occurs when the mine closes and the mining industry withdraws. If services are dependent on the mining company for funds or operational capacity, these services will disappear upon closure of the mine and withdrawal of the mining company from the area. A more sustainable strategy, for both the industry and the community, is for the mining company to work with local and other interests at developing the local capacity to provide social services and to ensure an easy transition when mine closure occurs.