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How does disturbance shape Canada's forests?

Disturbances such as windstorms, drought, wildfires, flooding and insect outbreaks are natural features of forest ecology, but they are increasing in frequency and strength due in part to climate change. Research to improve our ability to understand and predict changing climate regimes, species distributions and ecological dynamics will help us adapt to and mitigate the effects of forest disturbance.

To address the impact of climate change on forests, responsive forest management is necessary. This involves several important practices, including:

  • monitoring changes in forest distribution and composition
  • projecting future climate and forest change via computational models that consider climatic inputs, timescales and ecological interactions
  • promoting reforestation and afforestation using climate-informed seed selection and considering assisted migration of tree species to future favourable habitats
  • sharing knowledge and resources with all parties involved in managing and responding to disturbances

Key sustainability indicators

Explore the report to find information on the key sustainability indicators:

  • Forest insects: Trends of forest area affected by insects across Canada. Monitoring forest area defoliated and damaged by insects is important to determine impacts to timber supply, the risk of fire, and the risk to recreational enjoyment and other forest values.
  • Forest diseases: Tracking information of tree diseases. This is an important indicator that helps us better understand undesirable economic, social and ecological outcomes, including regeneration failure, volume loss and tree mortality.
  • Forest fires: Annual data on total area burned and number of fires in the last 23 years. Understanding forest fires in Canada is important as they are a natural part of the forest ecosystem and help maintain the health and diversity of the forest, but can also result in costly economic losses and provide public health and safety concerns.
  • Forest carbon emissions and removals: Estimated annual net carbon emissions in Canada’s managed forests. Monitoring carbon emissions is important as carbon dioxide (CO2) and methane (CH4) are important contributors to global warming.
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Forest insects

Key information
Insects are the most diverse group of organisms in Canada, with forests playing home to thousands of species. Many of these co-exist closely with trees. Only a small number kill trees or damage forests, but when they do, the impacts are often long-lasting and widespread.

In 2021, 16.0 million ha of Canada’s forests were affected by insects, a 10% decrease from 2020.

  • The areas of moderate-to-severe defoliation by spruce budworm decreased over the entire country. This reduction was seen most strongly in Québec; however, in Ontario and the Northwest Territories, populations increased significantly. Jack pine budworm populations also fell, driven mostly by decreases in Ontario. Populations remained steady in Manitoba.
  • The area affected by the spruce beetle decreased slightly, with almost all activity centred in British Columbia and Alberta.
  • The unprecedented outbreak of spongy moth continued in Ontario in 2021, with defoliation increasing three-fold to 1.8 million ha, primarily in southern Ontario. Additional defoliation occurred in parts of southern Québec.
  • Almost 6 million ha of forest were affected by other insect species. The most significant impacts were seen in the west, with regional outbreaks of species such as large aspen tortrix and two-year cycle spruce budworm.

Why is this indicator important?

  • Insects are a normal and natural part of all forest ecosystems and all trees are fed upon by one or more species. Some species of insects, however, may increase their populations to enormous numbers and affect vast areas. These outbreaks are often a normal part of the functioning of forest ecosystems, triggering renewal and change in forest structure. Outbreaks may also reduce Canada’s timber supply, affect carbon stocks, increase the risk of wildfires and reduce the recreational and non-timber uses of forests. Severe insect outbreaks can disrupt the forestry sector, leading to regional or national economic impacts. Therefore, it is important to monitor insect populations to ensure proper management of the effects of outbreaks.
  • Invasive insects are an increasing threat to forests in Canada. These species and their negative impacts are most frequently experienced in the southern regions of the country with the highest population density. The effects of invasive insects may be significant but are often difficult to predict because they lack a co-evolved relationship with the trees and ecosystems they infest in Canada. This uncertainty sometimes results in unpredicted events, like the large outbreak of spongy moth seen in southern Ontario in 2020 and 2021. Regulatory controls to limit the establishment or spread of invasive species within Canada, or imposed on Canada by trading partners, can increase production costs, impact timber supply and restrict market access. Understanding the impact of these species and preventing their introduction to Canada will enable Canada to minimize the impacts on fragile ecosystems.

Forest area (in hectares) containing defoliated or beetle-killed trees for key insects in Canada, 2011–2021

Graph summary

Comparison of the area disturbed for five forest insect species (spongy moth, eastern spruce budworm, jack pine budworm, mountain pine beetle and spruce beetle) and all others by jurisdiction for each year from 2011 to 2021.

Graph data

Forest area (in hectares) containing defoliated or beetle-killed trees for key insects in Canada, 2011–2021

Area disturbed (hectares)
Jurisdiction Year Spruce beetle Mountain pine beetle Jack pine budworm Eastern spruce budworm Spongy moth Other species
Alberta 2011 0 0 35,403 0 86,571
2012 0 0 28,530 0 496,194
2013 0 0 37,076 0 8,667,566
2014 0 0 44,387 0 3,590,495
2015 1,405 1,121,477 0 51,750 0 1,645,030
2016 10,465 198,963 0 19,265 0 764,679
2017 3,138 213,170 0 17,337 0 1,044,352
2018 2,145 205,015 1,217 30,446 0 990,575
2019 1,762 178,909 0 47,213 0 412,864
2020 2,853 77,637 0 65,719 0 1,027,715
2021 2,853 77,637 0 65,719 0 1,027,715
British Columbia 2011 19,346 4,624,907 0 0 0 2,381,760
2012 42,862 3,016,228 0 0 0 2,701,892
2013 18,693 2,973,935 0 0 0 4,756,048
2014 288,892 2,208,687 0 0 0 8,581,306
2015 194,050 326,477 0 0 0 4,032,772
2016 281,497 177,706 0 250 0 5,011,612
2017 501,873 119,089 0 756 0 4,801,824
2018 340,405 113,781 0 0 0 5,774,383
2019 515,447 178,140 0 3,885 0 4,807,136
2020 525,271 111,963 0 7,267 0 4,439,171
2021 470,668 73,238 0 36,449 0 4,583,038
Manitoba 2011 0 0 0 754 0 0
2012 0 0 0 240 0 0
2013 0 0 311 1,163 0 305,790
2014 0 0 4,346 0 0 905,484
2015 0 0 3,285 0 0 1,480,933
2016 199,799 12,597 1,427,175
2017 638,181 388 429,610
2018 552,118 71,055
2019 1,025,850 34,305 714
2020 0 0 2,580,547 104,433 0 3,067
2021 0 0 2,035,037 156,055 0 34,937
New Brunswick 2011 20 0 0 0 0 54,000
2012 20 0 0 0 0 54,000
2013 0 0 0 0 0 4,700
2014 0 0 0 0 0 0
2015 0 0 0 0 0 0
2016 0 0 0 0 0 0
2017 0 0 0 875 0 0
2018 0 0 0 440 0 0
2019 0
2020 0 0 0 0 0 0
2021
Newfoundland and Labrador 2011 41,097 21,790 12,937
2012 33,255 28,078
2013 7,848 55,045 1,991
2014 46,839 0 0 50,767 0 3,083
2015 46,839 0 0 36,352 0 2,730
2016 0 0 0 34,520 0 3,897
2017 0 0 0 430 0 1,443
2018 0 0 0 0 0 650
2019 0 0 0 0 0 0
2020 0 0 0 3,319 0 214
2021 0 0 0 65,701 0 799
Northwest Territories 2011 41,861 41,018
2012 61,457 209,390
2013 53,539 75,567
2014 76,400 272,039
2015 174,263 339,574
2016 122,473 397,395
2017 245,859 240,882
2018 391,615 357,534
2019 215,753 593,867
2020 0 0 0 107,760 0 292,930
2021 0 0 0 1,025,150 0 192,650
Nova Scotia 2011
2012
2013
2014 533
2015
2016
2017 1,860 2,893
2018 7 691
2019 30 18,727
2020 30 0 0 0 0 18,727
2021 0 0 0 0 0 29,683
Ontario 2011 0 0 27,765 242,921 0 104,831
2012 0 0 61,018 99,797 8,123 254,407
2013 0 0 91,865 348 8,451 315,839
2014 0 0 22,010 30,317 23,335 534,429
2015 0 0 21,349 149,310 2,529 686,311
2016 0 0 5,086 119,462 0 1,197,517
2017 0 0 100,510 147,546 21,712 2,511,092
2018 0 0 625,955 136,410 14,930 1,082,906
2019 0 0 1,029,916 343,426 47,431 53,620
2020 0 0 1,060,623 447,730 583,158 23,735
2021 0 0 345,389 1,327,513 1,780,348 57,658
Prince Edward Island 2011 30
2012 50 5 30
2013 60 1 35
2014 50 25
2015 50 25
2016 10 17
2017 10 2 15
2018 5 2 10
2019 5 2 12
2020 0 0 0 0 0 0
2021 0 0 0 0 0 10
Québec 2011 1,057,677 0 13,893
2012 1,537,562 0 7,788
2013 0 2,621,520 0 17,699
2014 0 3,381,829 0 15,833
2015 0 4,824,947 0 27,317
2016 0 0 4,664,658 0 68,527
2017 0 0 5,105,885 0 212,069
2018 0 0 5,433,302 0 118,491
2019 4,891,885
2020 0 0 0 6,246,502 0 0
2021 0 0 0 2,463,419 0 0
Saskatchewan 2011 92,406 33,824
2012 31,221 51,374
2013 9,307 99,837
2014 0 0 0 0 0 304,176
2015 0 0 0 0 428,955
2016 0 1,965 0 0 565,762
2017 0 10,189 0 0 610,097
2018 0 6,141 0 0 143,057
2019 0 12,624 0 0 53,820
2020 0 0 25,327 0 0 13,180
2021 0 0 32,449 0 0 31,082
Yukon 2011 1,311 0 0 17 0 53,777
2012 263 0 0 0 0 72,345
2013 0 0 0 0 0 5,100
2014 82 6,150
2015 95,248
2016 200,943
2017 369 113,917
2018 1,196 0 0 0 0 7,751
2019 1,196 0 0 0 0 7,751
2020 0 0 0 788 0 0
2021 2,276 0 0 0 0 35,538

Forest diseases

Since the beginning of the 20th century, Canadian forests have been forever changed by invasive diseases introduced via live plants and wood, including white pine blister rust, Dutch elm disease, chestnut blight, beech bark disease, butternut canker, European larch canker, dogwood anthracnose and more.

Endemic diseases are a normal component of healthy forest ecosystems, where they help shape forest structure, composition and succession. However, invasive diseases caused by introduced exotic pathogens can seriously threaten the biodiversity, health and productivity of Canadian forests.

  • Whitebark pine is at high risk of extinction in the wild because of mortality caused by white pine blister rust and factors that affect regeneration such as climate change and fire exclusion.
  • American beech is threatened by two invasive diseases: beech bark disease and the recently discovered beech leaf disease.
  • Oak wilt disease is absent in Canada but found < 1 km from the US-Canada border near Windsor, ON.

Why is this indicator important?

  • Introduced diseases can have serious ecosystem consequences through impacts on tree health and economic impacts caused by reduced wood supply.
  • Managing forest diseases involves appropriate site selection, silvicultural methods, planting resistant or non-host tree species and planting-improved stock from tree breeding programs.

Forest fires

Key information

Over the last decade, fire management agencies have increasingly recognized the value of prescribed burning to promote forest health and biodiversity. It can also be used to protect communities from wildfire. Catastrophic wildfire events like the 2016 Fort McMurray fire put forest communities on notice that fire poses a serious threat. In recent years many communities have taken action to protect their communities in a variety of ways, including prescribed burning. A notable example is the Whitehorse South Fire Risk Reduction project, which included thinning or burning 400 ha of forest that could provide a corridor for fire to enter the city of Whitehorse.

Though the total area burned by forest fires in 2022 was below average, two areas of the country experienced unusually active fire seasons: the Maritimes and the western territories.

  • A spring fire in Yarmouth County grew to become Nova Scotia’s largest fire on record.
  • In Newfoundland, three lightning-caused fires collectively called the Central Fire Complex started in late July near the town of Grand Falls-Windsor. Firefighting crews from five provinces worked into September to bring the fires under control. These were the largest fires in Newfoundland since 1961.
  • As was the case in much of the country, spring was cool and wet in the Yukon. But the end of June was hot and dry, and in the first week of July, more than 20,000 lightning strikes ignited 136 fires, keeping crews and fire managers busy with fire suppression, structure protection and highway closures.
  • In contrast, the total area burned in Ontario in 2022 was less than 2% of the long-term average.
  • The threat of fire to infrastructure was highlighted in July when a wildfire burned the power line to the community of Pukatawagan in northern Manitoba. The entire population of the community, over 2000 people, was evacuated because the fire was burning nearby. Though the threat of the fire receded, they were unable to return home for more than a month because of the power outage. Power was restored with the installation of two 1500-kW diesel generators while Manitoba Hydro worked to replace 77 burned power poles. Repairs to the line were completed in early October.
  • Despite extensive protection efforts including high-volume sprinklers and fire-resistant wrapping around power poles, a September fire near Jasper damaged transmission lines and cut off power to the town for two weeks. Everything from campgrounds to gas stations were closed. Tourism Jasper estimated that the town lost $10 million in revenue.
  • The fire season continued well into the fall in much of the country. In the western provinces, warm, dry conditions caused significant fire activity to continue into late October. In Québec, there were 33 fires in November, which is normally outside the fire season.
  • The total area burned in Canada in 2022 was 1.7 million ha, an area more than twice the size of greater Toronto, or more than five times the size of greater Vancouver.

Why is this indicator important?

  • Forest fires can damage or destroy homes and businesses in forested areas, trigger evacuations and disrupt people’s lives and livelihoods.
  • Fires produce large amounts of smoke, reducing air quality and visibility.
  • An average of $1 billion is spent annually on fire management.
  • However, fire plays an important and beneficial role in forest health, succession and nutrient cycling.

Forest area burned and number of forest fires in Canada, 2000–2022

Graph summary

The area burned and the number of forest fires per year in Canada from 2000 to 2022.

Graph data

Forest area burned and number of forest fires in Canada, 2000–2022

Year Area burned (hectares) Number of fires
2000 634,155 5,397
2001 647,669 7,762
2002 2,763,606 7,878
2003 2,168,402 8,270
2004 3,182,999 6,488
2005 1,686,768 7,452
2006 2,100,681 9,754
2007 1,785,466 6,919
2008 1,664,925 6,239
2009 762,566 7,145
2010 3,177,967 7,316
2011 2,397,427 4,678
2012 1,811,690 7,918
2013 4,268,502 6,256
2014 4,545,658 5,020
2015 3,908,382 7,034
2016 1,319,606 5,267
2017 3,589,430 5,658
2018 2,328,845 7,103
2019 1,786,200 4,059
2020 218,235 4,001
2021 4,078,895 6,709
2022 1,654,255 5,639

Forest carbon emissions and removals

Key information

Canada’s forests both absorb carbon and emit atmospheric carbon dioxide, methane, carbon monoxide and nitrous oxide. In any given year, depending on the area of natural disturbances such as forest fires, insect outbreaks and windthrows, Canada’s forests will either be a source of GHGs or a sink of atmospheric carbon. In 2021, the largest area burned since 1990, and managed forests were an overall source of approximately 302.1 Mt CO2e of GHGs.

In 2021, total net greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, reported as carbon dioxide equivalent (CO2e), from Canada’s managed forests (forest lands managed for timber production, conservation or fire suppression) and forest products were approximately 302.1 million tonnes (Mt).

Total net emissions are calculated by adding emissions/removals caused by human activities in Canada’s managed forests to emissions/removals caused by natural disturbances in Canada’s managed forests.

Human activities in Canada’s managed forests accounted for removals of about 8.0 Mt CO2e from the atmosphere in 2021, while natural disturbances accounted for emissions of about 310.1 Mt CO2e, resulting in net emissions of about 302.1 Mt CO2e.

  • The area burned in Canada’s managed forests in 2021 was approximately 2.3 million hectares. This was the largest area burned in any year since 1990, about eighteen times the area burned in 2020 and 9% higher than the previous record in 2015. This contributed to the area of Canada’s managed forest affected by natural disturbances emitting about 310 Mt CO2e.

Why is this indicator important?

  • Emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), carbon monoxide (CO) and nitrous oxide (N2O) from forest land are important contributors to global warming.
  • Canada’s forest sector provides renewable resources to the Canadian economy, resulting in emissions and removals, while also providing employment, aesthetic values, clean water, wildlife habitat and many other ecosystem services.

Net carbon emissions in Canada’s managed forests: All areas, 1990–2021

Graph summary

The net greenhouse gas emissions and the area disturbed per year in Canada’s managed forests for all area types between 1990 and 2021.

Graph data

Net carbon emissions in Canada’s managed forests: All areas, 1990–2021

Year Area disturbed (million hectares) GHG net emissions (million tonnes of CO₂ equivalent per year)
Area disturbed by insects Area of forestry activities Area of firewood harvest Area burned
1990 4.1 0.9 0.2 0.2 -100.6
1991 1.7 0.9 0.2 0.6 -65.5
1992 1.1 1.0 0.3 0.1 -109.5
1993 1.1 1.0 0.3 0.6 -58.8
1994 2.0 1.0 0.3 0.5 -47.1
1995 1.7 1.1 0.2 2.0 131.8
1996 1.7 1.0 0.3 0.6 -36.8
1997 1.9 1.1 0.3 0.1 -82.2
1998 2.5 1.0 0.2 1.5 116.1
1999 3.6 1.2 0.2 0.6 -11.3
2000 3.6 1.2 0.2 0.1 -59.6
2001 7.6 1.2 0.2 0.2 -42.9
2002 9.8 1.2 0.2 1.1 105.3
2003 12.9 1.2 0.2 0.7 59.7
2004 7.2 1.3 0.3 0.9 154.0
2005 9.6 1.3 0.2 0.6 79.4
2006 12.0 1.2 0.3 0.7 90.2
2007 10.5 1.1 0.3 0.7 93.3
2008 8.3 0.9 0.3 0.4 43.9
2009 5.5 0.8 0.3 0.4 52.5
2010 5.5 1.0 0.3 0.9 124.2
2011 4.8 1.1 0.4 1.1 155.0
2012 4.3 1.1 0.4 0.9 112.7
2013 5.1 1.0 0.4 0.5 55.7
2014 7.3 1.0 0.5 1.3 176.7
2015 8.0 1.1 0.5 2.2 275.3
2016 8.1 1.1 0.5 0.7 118.0
2017 8.1 1.1 0.4 1.5 241.0
2018 8.3 1.1 0.5 1.4 268.8
2019 9.1 1.0 0.5 1.1 161.4
2020 12.3 1.0 0.5 0.1 15.4
2021 10.7 1.0 0.5 2.3 302.1

Net carbon emissions in Canada’s managed forests: Areas subject to human activities, 1990–2021

Graph summary

The net greenhouse gas emissions and the area disturbed per year in Canada’s managed forests for areas subject to human activities between 1990 and 2021.

Graph data

Net carbon emissions in Canada’s managed forests: Areas subject to human activities, 1990–2021

Year Area disturbed (million hectares) GHG net emissions (million tonnes of CO₂ equivalent per year)
Area of forestry activities Area disturbed by low mortality insects Area of firewood harvest
1990 0.9 3.2 0.2 -74.1
1991 0.9 1.2 0.2 -70.3
1992 1.0 0.6 0.3 -62.7
1993 1.0 0.8 0.3 -58.4
1994 1.0 1.5 0.3 -54.5
1995 1.1 1.4 0.2 -40.3
1996 1.0 1.4 0.3 -45.9
1997 1.1 1.5 0.3 -45.3
1998 1.0 1.9 0.2 -56.1
1999 1.2 2.0 0.2 -41.5
2000 1.2 1.0 0.2 -25.5
2001 1.2 4.0 0.2 -40.9
2002 1.2 5.4 0.2 -22.4
2003 1.2 7.3 0.2 -25.4
2004 1.3 5.0 0.3 4.1
2005 1.3 4.8 0.2 9.9
2006 1.2 5.6 0.3 -1.3
2007 1.1 4.2 0.3 -5.0
2008 0.9 3.4 0.3 -8.7
2009 0.8 3.4 0.3 -19.6
2010 1.0 4.0 0.3 -3.2
2011 1.1 3.6 0.4 -3.0
2012 1.1 3.0 0.4 -6.9
2013 1.0 3.6 0.4 -3.3
2014 1.0 4.7 0.5 -3.7
2015 1.1 5.8 0.5 3.0
2016 1.1 6.7 0.5 -1.7
2017 1.1 6.2 0.4 -1.7
2018 1.1 6.4 0.5 3.3
2019 1.0 7.7 0.5 -9.0
2020 1.0 10.2 0.5 -5.5
2021 1.0 9.1 0.5 -8.0

Net carbon emissions in Canada’s managed forests: Area subject to natural disturbances, 1990–2021

Graph summary

The net greenhouse gas emissions and the area disturbed per year in Canada’s managed forests for areas subject to natural disturbances between 1990 and 2021.

Graph data

Net carbon emissions in Canada’s managed forests: Areas subject to natural disturbances, 1990–2021

Year Area disturbed (million hectares) GHG net emissions (million tonnes of CO₂ equivalent per year)
Area burned Area disturbed by high mortality insects
1990 0.2 0.9 -26.6
1991 0.6 0.6 4.9
1992 0.1 0.5 -46.9
1993 0.6 0.3 -0.4
1994 0.5 0.5 7.5
1995 2.0 0.3 172.1
1996 0.6 0.3 9.1
1997 0.1 0.4 -36.9
1998 1.5 0.7 172.2
1999 0.6 1.6 30.2
2000 0.1 2.6 -34.0
2001 0.2 3.6 -2.0
2002 1.1 4.4 127.7
2003 0.7 5.6 85.1
2004 0.9 2.1 149.9
2005 0.6 4.8 69.5
2006 0.7 6.4 91.5
2007 0.7 6.4 98.3
2008 0.4 5.0 52.6
2009 0.4 2.1 72.1
2010 0.9 1.5 127.4
2011 1.1 1.2 158.0
2012 0.9 1.3 119.5
2013 0.5 1.4 59.0
2014 1.3 2.6 180.4
2015 2.2 2.2 272.3
2016 0.7 1.5 119.7
2017 1.5 1.9 242.7
2018 1.4 1.9 265.5
2019 1.1 1.4 170.4
2020 0.1 2.0 20.9
2021 2.3 1.6 310.1
Sources and information

See Sources and information in the downloadable report for detailed sources.

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